Towards the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate, Western influence in
architecture began to show in buildings associated with the military and
trade, especially naval and industrial facilities. After the Emperor Meiji was restored to power (known as the Meiji Restoration) Japan began a rapid process of Westernization which led to the need for new building types such as schools, banks and hotels. Early Meiji Architecture was initially influenced by colonial architecture in Chinese treaty ports such as Hong Kong. In Nagasaki, the British trader Thomas Glover built his own house in just such a style using the skill of local carpenters. His influence helped the career of architect Thomas Waters who designed the Osaka Mint in 1868, a long, low building in brick and stone with a central pedimented portico.In Tōkyō, Waters designed the Commercial Museum, thought to have been the city's first brick building.
In Tokyo, after the Tsukiji area burnt to the ground in 1872, the government designated the Ginza
area as model of modernisation. The government planned the construction
of fireproof brick buildings, and larger, better streets connecting the
Shimbashi Station and the foreign concession in Tsukiji, as well as to important government buildings. Designs for the area were provided by the British architect Thomas James Waters;
the Bureau of Construction of the Ministry of Finance was in charge of
construction. In the following year, a Western-style Ginza was
completed. "Bricktown" buildings were initially offered for sale, later
they were leased, but the high rent meant that many remained unoccupied.
Nevertheless, the area flourished as a symbol of "civilisation and
enlightenment", thanks to the presence of newspapers and magazine
companies, who led the trends of the day. The area was also known for
its window displays, an example of modern marketing techniques. The
"Bricktown" of Ginza served as a model for many other modernisation
schemes in Japanese cities.
The Tokugawa Shogunate took the city of Edo
(later to become part of modern day Tōkyō) as their capital. They built
an imposing fortress around which buildings of the state administration
and residences for the provincial daimyōs
were constructed. The city grew around these buildings connected by a
network of roads and canals. By 1700CE the population had swollen to one
million inhabitants. The scarcity of space for residential architecture
resulted in houses being built over two stories, often constructed on
raised stone plinths.
Although machiya (townhouses) had been around since the Heian period they began to be refined during the Edo period. Machiya
typically occupied deep, narrow plots abutting the street (the width of
the plot was usually indicative of the wealth of the owner), often with
a workshop or shop on the ground floor. Tiles rather than thatch were
used on the roof and exposed timbers were often plastered in an effort
to protect the building against fire.Ostentatious buildings that demonstrated the wealth and power of the feudal lords were constructed, such as the Kamiyashiki of Matsudaira Tadamasa or the Ōzone Shimoyashiki.
Edo suffered badly from devastating fires and the 1657 Great Fire of Meireki
was a turning point in urban design. Initially, as a method of reducing
fire spread, the government built stone embankments in at least two
locations along rivers in the city. Over time these were torn down and
replaced with dōzō storehouses that were used both as fire breaks and to store goods unloaded from the canals. The dōzō
were built with a structural frame made of timber coated with a number
of layers of earthen plaster on the walls, door and roof. Above the
earthen roofs was a timber framework supporting a tiled roof.Although Japanese who had studied with the Dutch at their settlement in Dejima advocated building with stone and brick this was not undertaken because of their vulnerability to earthquakesMachiya
and storehouses from the later part of the period are characterised by
having a black coloration to the external plaster walls. This colour was
made by adding India ink to burnt lime and crushed oyster shell.
The clean lines of the civil architecture in Edo influenced the sukiya style of residential architecture. Katsura Detached Palace and Shugaku-in Imperial Villa
on the outskirts of Kyōto are good examples of this style. Their
architecture has simple lines and decor and uses wood in its natural
state.
In the very late part of the period sankin kōtai, the law requiring the daimyōs
to maintain dwellings in the capital was repealed which resulted in a
decrease in population in Edo and a commensurate reduction in income for
the shogunate.
During the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) Japan underwent a process of unification after a long period of civil war. It was marked by the rule of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, men who built castles as symbols of their power; Nobunaga in Azuchi, the seat of his government, and Hideyoshi in Momoyama. The Ōnin War
during the Muromachi period had led to rise of castle architecture in
Japan. By the time of the Azuchi-Momoyama period each domain was allowed
to have one castle of its own. Typically it consisted of a central
tower or tenshu (天守?, lit. heaven defense)
surrounded by gardens and fortified buildings. All of this was set
within massive stone walls and surrounded by deep moats. The dark
interiors of castles were often decorated by artists, the spaces were
separated up using sliding fusuma panels and byōbu folding screens.
The shoin style that had its origins with the chashitsu
of the Muromachi period continued to be refined. Verandas linked the
interiors of residential buildings with highly cultivated exterior
gardens. Fusuma and byōbu became highly decorated with paintings and often an interior room with shelving and alcove (tokonoma) were used to display art work (typically a hanging scroll).
Matsumoto, Kumamoto and Himeji (popularly known as the White Heron castle) are excellent examples of the castles of the period, while Nijo Castle
in Kyōto is an example of castle architecture blended with that of an
imperial palace, to produce a style that is more in keeping with the
Chinese influence of previous centuries.
Although the network of Buddhist temples across the country acted as a
catalyst for an exploration of architecture and culture, this also led
to the clergy gaining increased power and influence. Emperor Kammu decided to escape this influence by moving his capital first to Nagaoka-kyō and then to Heian-kyō, known today as Kyōto.
Although the layout of the city was similar to Nara's and inspired by
Chinese precedents, the palaces, temples and dwellings began to show
examples of local Japanese taste.
Heavy materials like stone, mortar and clay were abandoned as
building elements, with simple wooden walls, floors and partitions
becoming prevalent. Native species like cedar (sugi) were popular as an interior finish because of its prominent grain, while pine (matsu) and larch (aka matsu) were common for structural uses. Brick roofing tiles and a type of cypress called hinoki were used for roofs. It was sometime during this period that the hidden roof, a uniquely Japanese solution to roof drainage problems, was adopted.
The increasing size of buildings in the capital led to an
architecture reliant on columns regularly spaced in accordance with the ken, a traditional measure of both size and proportion. The Imperial Palace Shishinden demonstrated a style that was a precursor to the later aristocratic-style of building known as shinden-zukuri. The style was characterised by symmetrical buildings placed as arms that defined an inner garden. This garden then used borrowed scenery to seemingly blend with the wider landscape.
The chief surviving example of shinden-zukuri architecture is the Hō-ō-dō (鳳凰堂?, Phoenix Hall, completed 1053) of Byōdō-in, a temple in Uji
to the southeast of Kyōto. It consists of a main rectangular structure
flanked by two L-shaped wing corridors and a tail corridor, set at the
edge of a large artificial pond. Inside, a single golden image of Amida (circa 1053) is installed on a high platform. Raigo (Descent of the Amida Buddha) paintings on the wooden doors of the Hō-ō-dō are often considered an early example of Yamato-e, Japanese-style painting, because they contain representations of the scenery around Kyōto.
The priest Kūkai (best known by the posthumous title Kōbō Daishi, 774–835) journeyed to China to study Shingon, a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which he introduced into Japan in 806. At the core of Shingon worship are the various mandalas, diagrams of the spiritual universe which influenced temple design.
The temples erected for this new sect were built in the mountains, far
away from the court and the laity in the capital. The irregular
topography of these sites forced their designers to rethink the problems
of temple construction, and in so doing to choose more indigenous
elements of design.
At this time the architectural style of Buddhist temples began to influence that of the Shintō shrines.
For example, like their Buddhist counterparts the Shintō shrines began
to paint the normally unfinished timbers with the characteristic red cinnabar colour.
During the later part of the Heian Period there were the first documented appearances of vernacular houses in the minka
style/form. These were characterised by the use local materials and
labour, being primarily constructed of wood, having packed earth floors
and thatched roofs.
The most significant contributor to architectural changes during the Asuka period was the introduction of Buddhism. New temples became centers of worship with tomb burial practices slowly becoming outlawed.Also, Buddhism brought to Japan and kami worship the idea of permanent shrines and gave to Shinto architecture much of its present vocabulary.
Some of the earliest structures still extant in Japan are Buddhist
temples established at this time. The oldest surviving wooden buildings
in the world are found at Hōryū-ji, to the southwest of Nara. First built in the early 7th century as the private temple of Crown Prince Shōtoku, it consists of 41 independent buildings; the most important ones, the main worship hall, or Kon-dō (Golden Hall), and the five-story pagoda), stand in the centre of an open area surrounded by a roofed cloister (kairō). The Kon-dō, in the style of Chinese worship halls, is a two-story structure of post-and-beam construction, capped by an irimoya, or hipped-gabled, roof of ceramic tiles.
Heijō-kyō, modern day Nara,
was founded in 708 as the first permanent capital of state of Japan.
The layout of its checkerboard streets and buildings were modeled after
the Chinese capital of Chang'an. The city soon became an important centre of Buddhist worship in Japan. The most grandiose of these temples was Tōdaiji, built to rival temples of the Chinese T'ang and Sui Dynasties. Appropriately, the 16.2-m (53-ft) Buddha or Daibutsu (completed in 752) enshrined in the main hall is a Rushana Buddha, the figure that represents the essence of Buddhahood, just as Tōdai-ji
represented the centre for imperially sponsored Buddhism and its
dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original
statue survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are
reconstructions from the Edo period. Clustered around the main hall (the Daibutsuden) on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokke-dō (Lotus Sutra Hall), the Kōfukuand the storehouse, called the Shōsō-in.
This last structure is of great importance as an art-historical cache,
because in it are stored the utensils that were used in the temple's
dedication ceremony in 752, as well as government documents and many
secular objects owned by the Imperial family.
Much in the traditional architecture of Japan is not native, but was
imported from China and other Asian cultures over the centuries.
Japanese traditional architecture and its history are as a consequence
dominated by Chinese and Asian techniques and styles (present even in Ise Shrine,
held to be the quintessence of Japanese architecture) on one side, and
by Japanese original variations on those themes on the other.
Partly due also to the variety of climates in Japan and the
millennium encompassed between the first cultural import and the last,
the result is extremely heterogeneous, but several practically universal
features can nonetheless be found. First of all is the choice of
materials, always wood in various forms (planks, straw, tree bark,
paper, etc.) for almost all structures. Unlike both Western and some
Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for certain
specific uses, for example temple podia and pagoda foundations.
The general structure is almost always the same: posts and lintels
support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin,
often movable and in any case non-carrying. Arches and barrel roofs are
completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and
columnar entasis (convexity at the center) limited.
The roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas, and their weight must therefore be supported by complex bracket systems called tokyō,
in the case of temples and shrines. Simpler solutions are adopted in
domestic structures. The oversize eaves give the interior a
characteristic dimness, which contributes to the building's atmosphere.
The interior of the building normally consists of a single room at the
center called moya, from which depart any other less important spaces.
Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified
through the use of screens or movable paper walls. The large, single
space offered by the main hall can therefore be divided according to the need.To the contrary, some walls can be removed and different rooms joined
temporarily to make space for some more guests. The separation between
inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire
walls can be removed, opening a residence or temple to visitors.
Verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, but part of
the external world to those in the building. Structures are therefore
made to a certain extent part of their environment. Care is taken to
blend the edifice into the surrounding natural environment.
The use of construction modules keeps proportions between different
parts of the edifice constant, preserving its overall harmony. (On the subject of building proportions, see also the article ken).
Even in cases as that of Nikkō Tōshō-gū,
where every available space is heavily decorated, ornamentation tends
to follow, and therefore emphasize, rather than hide, basic structures.
Being shared by both sacred and profane architecture, these features
made it easy converting a lay building into a temple or vice versa. This
happened for example at Hōryū-ji, where a noblewoman's mansion was transformed into a religious building.
Japanese architecture has traditionally been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly
off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors were used in place of walls, allowing the internal configuration of a
space to be customized to different occasions. People usually sat on
cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally; chairs and high
tables were not widely used until the 19th century. Since the 19th
century, however, Japan has incorporated much of Western, modern, and post-modern architecture into construction and design, and is today a leader in cutting-edge architectural design and technology.
The earliest Japanese architecture was seen in prehistoric times in simple pit-houses and stores that were adapted to a hunter-gatherer population. Influence from Han Dynasty China via Korea saw the introduction of more complex grain stores and ceremonial burial chambers.
The introduction into Japan of Buddhism in the sixth century was a catalyst for large scale temple building using complicated techniques in wood. Influence from the Chinese T'ang and Sui Dynasties led to the foundation of the first permanent capital in Nara. Its checkerboard street layout used the Chinese capital of Chang'an
as a template for its design. A gradual increase in the size of
buildings led to standard units of measurement as well as refinements in
layout and garden design. The introduction of the tea ceremony emphasised simplicity and modest design as a counterpoint to the excesses of the aristocracy.
During the Meiji Restoration of 1868 the history of Japanese architecture was radically changed by two important events. The first was the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, which formally separated Buddhism from Shinto and Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines,
breaking an association between the two which had lasted well over a
thousand years and causing, directly and indirectly, immense damage to
the nation's architecture.
Second, it was then that Japan underwent a period of intense Westernization
in order to compete with other developed countries. Initially
architects and styles from abroad were imported to Japan but gradually
the country taught its own architects and began to express its own
style. Architects returning from study with western architects
introduced the International Style
of modernism into Japan. However, it was not until after the Second
World War that Japanese architects made an impression on the
international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzo Tange and then with theoretical movements like Metabolism.
